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Worldwide reduction of carbon emissions is needed to help reduce the effects of climate change. Twenty-seven member states of the European Union have committed to reduce emissions by 55% of 1990 levels by 20301. To achieve this, an unprecedented installation of offshore marine renewable energy devices (wind, wave, tidal, solar) and cable networks is required2. To date, offshore wind energy is the largest marine renewable energy provider, currently producing globally 35 GW with an increase to 70 GW expected by 20253 and a potential increase worldwide to 1000 GW expected by 20504. Europe has the majority of offshore wind farms (OWFs) with a capacity of 28 GW5, which corresponds to 5,795 grid-connected wind turbines across 123 OWFs and 12 countries5. Marine biodiversity and their associated ecosystems are increasingly being affected by anthropogenic pressures, such as the growing number of artificial structures6,7, eutrophication, fisheries and climate change8–10. The introduction of man-made structures can potentially have both positive and negative effects on marine ecosystems11– 14. Soft-bottom communities are altered close to artificial structures15–17, while a significant amount of marine growth colonises the artificial hard structures18,19. To assess the effects of man-made structures on the benthic community, most environmental impact assessment data collection studies have been conducted over small spatial and temporal scales20 such as single turbines or single OWFs and associated infrastructure15,21,22. Some countries have coordinated programmes to standardise data collection methods on soft sediments (e.g., Germany23, Belgium24, the Baltic Sea25), and there are existing methods to study macrofauna on natural hard substrates such as rocky bottoms26. However, there are no internationally agreed methods, metrics or databases for the data collection, which is critical for understanding the effects of artificial structures on marine ecosystems. Data are disparate owing to differences in data diversity, regarding (i) sampling devices and methods, (ii) sample analysis (e.g., variables, taxonomic resolution), (iii) data storage and management, as well as (iv) continuously changing taxonomy. This results in a lack of consistent data with regards to offshore artificial structures and benthos. Thus, investigation of large-scale benthic effects requires merging data from different sources, which is challenging (time consuming, costly, difficult) or even not possible19. Taken together, the available data are underutilised. A few attempts have been made to collect and analyse biodiversity data from different substrates (wind turbines, oil and gas platforms, surrounding soft sediments and rocky reefs) in a single region19,27,28. Ecosystem-based management requires a deep understanding of the effects of artificial structures over large spatial and temporal scales that exceed budgets, timeframes and jurisdictional borders. Data sharing through the creation of an integrated database can provide multiple benefits for science, industry, and policy. It could be used for large-scale research studies examining the aforementioned effects and facilitate ecosystem-based management. Furthermore, the creation of a centralised dataset could enable answering scientific questions regarding stepping stone effects beyond the scale of individual OWFs, platforms or countries29,30. Industry could exploit this dataset for environment-friendly planning, predicting effects of new activities at offshore locations. Finally, sharing such data is crucial in developing fact-based scientific advice for decommissioning decisions for various stakeholders. This paper presents the first data collection ‘Biodiversity Information of benthic Species at ARtificial structures’ (BISAR). BISAR contains data on benthic macrofauna collected in environmental impact studies, scientific projects and species inventories conducted at 17 artificial offshore structures in the North Sea between 2003 and 2019. The structures include OWFs, oil and gas platforms, a research platform and a geogenic reef to compare natural and artificial reef communities. BISAR includes data from soft and hard substrate studies (34 artificial structures), allowing comparisons of changes in both habitat types. This data collection currently contains data from a total of 3864 samples with 890 taxa. BISAR is the first data product containing harmonised and quality-checked international data on benthos from substrates influenced by artificial structures in the North Sea. Various stakeholders (e.g., industry, public authorities, research) will profit from the BISAR data collection as the greatest challenge in an era of blue growth is to get access to data from various sources

Given the global offshore wind farm (OWF) proliferation, we investigated the impact of OWFs on the marine food web. Using linear inverse modelling (LIM), we compared theOWF food web with two softsediment food webs nearby. Novel in situ data on species biomass and their isotopic composition were combined with literature data to construct food webs.Our findings highlight the prominent role of hard-substrate species on turbine foundations as organic material inputs for the food web. Hard substrate species account for approximately 26% of food source uptake from the water column and increase carbon deposition on the surrounding seafloor by ~10%. OWFs facilitate a novel food web with a higher productivity than expected based on standing biomass alone, as a result of numerous interactions between a diverse species community. Our study underscores profound effects of OWFs on marine ecosystems, suggesting the need for further research into their ecological impacts.

Floating photovoltaic installations (FPV) are among the promising emerging marine renewable energy systems contributing to future global energy transition strategies. FPVs can be integrated within existing offshore wind farms, contributing to more efficient use of marine space. This complementarity has gained increasing attention as a sustainable approach to enhance green energy production while reducing offshore grid infrastructure costs, particularly in the North Sea. This study presents a first assessment to quantify the mid- and far-field hydrodynamic effects of FPVs (elevated design) deployed within an existing offshore wind farm (OWF) in the Belgian part of the North Sea. A subgrid-scale parameterization was adopted into the 3D hydrodynamic model COHERENS to assess impacts on four key hydrodynamic metrics: surface irradiance reduction due to shading, changes in current velocity fields, turbulent kinetic energy production, and variations in current-induced bottom shear stress. Four scenarios were compared: a baseline without structures, a scenario with only offshore wind turbines and two combined wind and photovoltaic configurations (sparse and dense). At farm scale, simulations showed small effects of FPV shading on sea surface temperature (< 0.1°C), but significant reductions in current speed, increased turbulent kinetic energy mainly beneath the floaters, and a noticeable impact on bottom shear stress. This hydrodynamic modeling study constitutes a first step toward a comprehensive environmental impact assessment of FPVs, particularly in relation to their biogeochemical effects on the water column and benthic habitats. The findings provide valuable insights to support sustainable marine spatial planning, environmental assessments, and industrial design strategies in the North Sea and beyond.

Motivation: Here, we make available a second version of the BioTIME database, which compiles records of abundance estimates for species in sample events of ecological assemblages through time. The updated version expands version 1.0 of the database by doubling the number of studies and includes substantial additional curation to the taxonomic accuracy of the records, as well as the metadata. Moreover, we now provide an R package (BioTIMEr) to facilitate use of the database. Main Types of Variables Included: The database is composed of one main data table containing the abundance records and 11 metadata tables. The data are organised in a hierarchy of scales where 11,989,233 records are nested in 1,603,067 sample events, from 553,253 sampling locations, which are nested in 708 studies. A study is defined as a sampling methodology applied to an assemblage for a minimum of 2 years. Spatial Location and Grain: Sampling locations in BioTIME are distributed across the planet, including marine, terrestrial and freshwater realms. Spatial grain size and extent vary across studies depending on sampling methodology. We recommend gridding of sampling locations into areas of consistent size. Time Period and Grain: The earliest time series in BioTIME start in 1874, and the most recent records are from 2023. Temporal grain and duration vary across studies. We recommend doing sample-level rarefaction to ensure consistent sampling effort through time before calculating any diversity metric. Major Taxa and Level of Measurement: The database includes any eukaryotic taxa, with a combined total of 56,400 taxa. Software Format: csv and. SQL.

The development of offshore wind farms (OWFs) in the North Sea is a crucial component for the transition to renewable energy. However, local hydrodynamics in the vicinity of OWF turbine foundations may be affected due to their interaction with tidal currents. This study investigates the impact of offshore wind turbine foundations on local hydrodynamics and stratification in the southern North Sea. We conducted a series of measurements around a single monopile in the Belgian part of the North Sea, focusing on hydrodynamics, salinity and temperature both near the surface and over the water column, and turbulent kinetic energy (TKE). Our results indicate that the foundation-induced wake significantly affects local hydrodynamics, leading to a well-defined band of colder, more saline water at the surface and warmer, less saline water near the seabed. This is quantified through the Potential Energy Anomaly (PEA), which shows a marked decrease in the wake-affected area. The wake is spatially confined, with a width of approximately 70 meters and a length of less than 400 meters downstream of the monopile. Additionally, our measurements reveal an increase in TKE within the wake, indicating enhanced turbulent mixing. This mixing reduces vertical gradients in salinity and temperature, leading to a more homogeneous water column. The findings highlight the importance of considering monopile-induced mixing in large-scale hydrodynamic and ecosystem models, as these effects can influence nutrient transport, primary production, and overall ecosystem dynamics. Furthermore, our research provides valuable data for validating and improving the models used to predict the ecological impact of OWFs.

With the rapid expansion of offshore energy, numerous artificial structures are being installed on the seabed, including wind turbine foundations. This study investigates the “artificial reef” (AR) effect of bottom-fixed offshore wind farms (OWFs) on soft sediment benthic communities. While previous studies have focused on distances ≥30 m from turbines, in this study, sediment and macrobenthic samples were collected at shorter distances (1 m, 7 m, 15 m and 25 m) from the scour protection layer (SPL) around a monopile and a gravitybased foundation in two Belgian OWFs, 10–13 years post-installation. Results show a localized AR footprint for both turbine foundations, with enriched benthic communities within 15 m of the SPL. In comparison to communities 25 m distanced away from the SPL, a higher average species richness (+100 %), abundance (+117 %), functional richness (+438 %), and bioturbation potential (+86 %) was prevalent, whereas the magnitude of enriched structural and functional diversity in the footprint varied respectively between 16 and 80 % and 15–110 % depending on the OWF. Beyond the AR footprint, communities resembled those at reference sites (240–570 m), with less surface dwellers, suspension feeders and a prevalence of burrowing biodiffusors that contribute little to bioturbation. While the AR effect’s magnitude depends on local conditions and foundation design, our trait-based analysis indicates that sediment fining, biofouling drop-offs and organic enrichment are consistent drivers shaping the AR footprint.

New material of the small raoellid artiodactyl Metkatius kashmiriensis is reported from the middle Eocene of the Upper Subathu Formation in the Kalakot area, Jammu and Kashmir, northwest Himalaya, India. The fossil material consists of numerous mandibular and maxillary fragments and isolated teeth, mainly belonging to juvenile specimens. It documents the poorly known dental morphology of M. kashmiriensis and provides an overview of its intraspecific variation, allowing to redefine its diagnosis. M. kashmiriensis is characterized by a particularly small size compared with other raoellid species, and by bunodont molars with moderately marked transverse lophs. The M/1–2 are much longer than wide and display characters similar to those of Rajouria gunnelli, such as the presence of a small paraconid and a mesial mesiostylid. The P/4 bears distally a small hypoconid, which appears to be unique in Raoellidae. The description of the new material also allows to document the poorly known morphology of the deciduous teeth of raoellids. The DP2/ is reported for the first time, and the DP/4 of M. kashmiriensis shows a morphology different from that of Indohyus, with the absence of mesial basin anterior to the paraconid and the primoconid. Contrary to what has recently been proposed, these results confirm that M. kashmiriensis is a valid species and not a synonym of Indohyus indirae, and highlight the great morphological diversity present within the Raoellidae during the middle Eocene in the Indian subcontinent.